Magnetism in Gemstones
An Effective Tool and Method for Gem Identification
Almandine Garnet
Spessartine Garnet
Larimar
Turquoise
Ruby
Chrome Diopside
Chrysoprase
Synthetic Spinel (flame-fusion)
Merelani Garnet
Colored Primarily by Vanadium
Sapphire
Pink CZ
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Rare Earth Metals: Rare earth ions in gems range from weakly paramagnetic to intensely paramagnetic. Rare earth metals are most notably found as dopants (artificial coloring agents) in lab-created gems such as Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG), Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG), Cubic Zirconia (CZ) and Glass gems. GGG is made of the highly magnetic rare earth metal Gadolinium (Gd). Various metals have been added to GGG to create different colors in an attempt to simulate colored Diamonds. The blue-green GGG pictured below (left) is colored by cobalt, but even colorless GGG is picked up by a magnet due to Gadolinium. GGG is no longer manufactured for gemstone purposes, and YAG gems are in very limited production.
Today, CZ is the leading Diamond simulant. Pink CZ (below center) is strongly magnetic because it contains magnetic oxides of erbium (Er) and holmium (Ho), the most strongly paramagnetic of all metal ions. Erbium oxides can be 10 times as paramagnetic magnetic as iron oxides, and can be detected with a magnetic wand in trace amounts perhaps as low as 0.01%. Cubic Zirconia can be colored yellow by cerium and neodymium (below right) to imitate yellow Diamond. Cerium ions are barely paramagnetic.
7) Nickel (Ni) is ferromagnetic (intensely magnetic) as a native metal, and is found in conjunction with iron in iron-nickel meteorites. Nickel ions (Ni2+) dispersed in gemstones are only weakly paramagnetic compared to iron, but when in high concentrations they can cause strong magnetic responses. We know of only 3 natural gems that are colored primarily by nickel. These are Chrysoprase, Prase Opal, and Gaspeite. Chyrsoprase is a type of Chalcedony Quartz, and Prase Opal is a rare Opal colored by sub-microscopic inclusions of Chrysoprase. Gaspeite is a rare idiochromatic gem mineral containing nickel and iron. All 3 gems are green in color, and all are mined predominantly in Australia. These gems show weak to strong magnetic attraction due to varying concentrations of nickel (plus iron in Gaspeite). Nickel in conjunction with iron and chromium contributes to the green colors of the Serpentine group: Serpentine, Lizardite, Bowenite, Williamsite (below right), etc. These are weakly to strongly magnetic.
6) Copper (Cu) is a strong coloring agent that is occasionally found in gems, creating blue and green color. Copper is inert (diamagnetic) as a native metal, as can be demonstrated when we apply a magnet to a household copper pipe fitting. Ions of cuprous copper (Cu1+) in gemstones such as Cuprite are also diamagnetic.
With a change in the valence state, a high concentration of Cu2+ (cupric copper) within the copper salts of idiochromatic minerals can create significant magnetic attraction. Examples include translucent to opaque blue Turquoise (copper phosphate), blue Azurite (copper carbonate), green Malachite (copper carbonate), blue-green Chrysocolla (copper silicate), blue-green Dioptase (copper silicate) and blue Boleite (lead-silver-copper chloride), all of which show magnetic attraction from copper. Due to the high concentration of copper in its naive chemistry, the faceted Dioptase gem shown below right shows a Drag response to a magnetic wand.
The Magnetic Metals that Color Gems
This page tours the 8 transition metals, as well as the rare earth metals and uranium, that cause color in gems. Ions of two or more of these metals may be dispersed within a single gem, either as impurities or as part of a gem's inherent chemistry. In either case, the metal ions do not exist independently, but bond with other atoms within gems, primarily oxygen atoms, to form various oxides such as iron oxide (FeO).
Among transition metals within gems, our magnetic wand detects: 1) mostly iron, 2) occasionally manganese, 3 & 4) seldom chromium and vanadium, 5) cobalt only in the rare Cobalt Spinel, and 6 & 7) copper and nickel only in some translucent and opaque gems. 8) Titanium is never by itself magnetically detectable in gemstones. Varying degrees of magnetic attraction are caused by these metals within gems depending on the concentrations and valence states of the metals involved.
The causes of color for over 350 gems are listed in our Magnetic Susceptibility Index in the far right column.
The next few pages of this section explore how spectroscopy and fluorescence are related to magnetism in gemstones, and how the magnetism of any gem can be quantitatively measured. Thermal Conductivity measurements with a thermal conductivity meter are also very useful for gem identification, but our own investigations show that thermal conductivity generally does not correlate with magnetic susceptibility.
Near-Colorless Peridot (Forsterite)
with Green Tint
Near-Colorless Spinel (Pink Tint)
2) Manganese (Mn) is a fairly common transition metal in gemstones. As a pure metal in its ground state, it is far less magnetic than pure iron. However, manganese ions (Mn2+) in gems have high magnetic susceptibilities, and manganese oxide (MnO) concentrations as low as approximately 0.13% are detectable. Due to a high concentration of Mn2+ (up to 40% MnO), orange Spessartine Garnet is the most strongly magnetic Garnet. Almandine Garnet colored by iron (Fe2+) and Andradite Garnet colored by iron (Fe3+) are tied for second place after Spessartine.
Manganese ions (Mn2+) are also responsible for red and pink color in many gems such as Rhodochrosite (mostly translucent to opaque), which at times is even more magnetic than Spessartine Garnet. Mn3+ ions create color in much lower concentrations than Mn2+, resulting in weakly magnetic or diamagnetic gems. Mn3+ creates red color in Rubellite Tourmaline, which is usually weakly magnetic, and pink color in Kunzite (pink Spodumene), which is diamagnetic. A form of black manganese oxide called Psilomelane is strongly magnetic due to Mn4+, and it is sometimes fashioned into decorative opaque cabochons.
Iolite
Rubellite Tourmaline
Dravite Tourmaline
5) Cobalt (Co) is not a naturally abundant metal in the Earth's crust. Like iron and nickel, it is ferromagnetic (intensely magnetic) in its non-ionic ground state. Cobalt ions (Co2+) in cobalt oxide (Co3O4) are equally paramagnetic as iron ions, but they are rarely found in natural gems, and mostly only in trace amounts. Cobalt is an even stronger chromophore than chromium, able to create color at extremely low levels.
We most often encounter cobalt in synthetics and imitations such as synthetic blue Spinel, synthetic blue Quartz, and blue Glass, all of which are diamagnetic. Flux-grown synthetic blue Spinel and synthetic blue YAG can be weakly magnetic due to a higher concentration of cobalt. But the concentrations of cobalt found in most natural and synthetic gems is too low to be detectable with a magnet.
Most natural blue Spinels are colored primarily by iron (Fe2+), but cobalt (Co2+) also contributes to the blue color to varying degrees. The magnetic responses we see in natural blue Spinels are usually due to entirely to iron. The rare Cobalt Spinel has low iron, and contains the highest levels of cobalt of any natural gemstone. It's weak magnetic attraction could be mostly due to cobalt. Three other examples of cobalt contributing to color in natural gemstones are the rare green Sphalerite (blue color mixed with yellow, diamagnetic), pink Cobalto Calcite (weakly magnetic due to iron), and pink Smithsonite (weakly magnetic due to manganese).
Prase Opal
Green Sphalerite
3) Chromium (Cr) is the most common metallic chromophore in gems after iron, causing red and green colors. Chromium is the reason Rubies are bright red and some Emeralds are rich green. Chromium is also a primary cause of UV fluorescence (pink or red) in gemstones. Chromium ions (mostly Cr3+) exist within chromium oxides in gemstones, and these are only 25% as magnetic as iron. But chromium is a stronger coloring agent than iron. The concentration of chromium needed to cause color can in some cases be nearly 100 times less than the concentration needed for iron to cause color (George Rossman, pers. comm., 2014). Therefore chromium is usually found in very low concentrations, and the small amount of chromium within most red and green gemstones is undetectable or only barely detectable with a magnet.
Yellow Sphene
Psilomelane
One Metal, Multiple Colors? As we have shown, a single metal type can cause different colors in different gems. Manganese ions cause orange color in Spessartine Garnet, red in Rubellite Tourmaline, black in Psilomelane, and in rare cases green in Andalusite. Such remarkable variation is a result of: 1) different valence states of the metallic ions 2) differences in geometry of the molecules containing the metal ions, and 3) different atoms that surround the metal ions. For example, the valence states of manganese ions (Mn2+, Mn3+, Mn4+) can vary among gem species. The shapes of the molecular sites (octahedral, tetrahedral, distorted cubic) occupied by these metal ions can also vary from species to species. And the types of neighboring atoms interacting with the metal ions can vary. More detailed information about the complex causes of color in gems can be found in Dr. Kurt Nassau's 1980 Scientific American article The Causes of Color, the Gems and Gemology 1987 article An Update on Color in Gems by Fritsch and Rossman, and at Dr. George Rossman's CalTech web page The Colors of Minerals.
Emerald
Gaspeite
Kyanite
Azurite & Malachite Cabochon
Cobalto Calcite
Reddish Brown Bastnasite
Some allochromatic gem species mix in solid solution with idiochromatic species that have coloring agents in their chemical structure. As examples, Forsterite mixes with green Fayalite to create a hybrid called Peridot (Drag response), orange Hessonite Grossular Garnet (Moderate to Drag response) mixes to a small degree with Andradite Garnet, and brown Enstatite (Drag response) mixes with brown/black Ferrosilite. These blended allochromatic-idiochromatic gems can retain enough magnetic metals to show some attraction to a magnet even when they are near their pure state (colorless or near-colorless).
The near-colorless Forsterite shown below on the left has a slight green tint and shows weak magnetic attraction due to iron from Fayalite. The near-colorless Hessonite Garnet in the center has a slight orange tint and shows moderate magnetic attraction due to iron from Andradite. The completely colorless Enstatite on the right is weakly magnetic due to iron from Ferrosilite. As another example, colorless Magnesioaxinite is weakly magnetic due to iron from brown idiochromatic Ferroaxinite.
Colorless and Near-colorless Gemstones: All allochromatic gemstones are colorless in their pure state. Colorless and near-colorless gems of allochromatic species such as Sapphire and Spinel as a rule show no attraction to a magnet because they lack paramagnetic metals, or contain paramagnetic metals in concentrations too low to be detected with a magnet. The Sapphire below (left) has undetectable iron content. The Spinel below (right) shows a slight pink tint, but it is also magnetically inert (diamagnetic) because the concentration of chromium and iron is very low. A few other examples of diamagnetic colorless allochromatic gems are Goshenite Beryl, Achroite Tourmaline and white Jadeite.
Solid Iron
Peridot
In natural gems, rare earth metals are seldom found as the primary coloring agents. Neodymium and praseodymium usually occur together in natural gems that are yellow and brown in color, and may contribute to color. Yellow Sphene is weakly to strongly magnetic due to traces of neodymium (Nd3+), praseodymium (Pr3+) and iron (Fe3+). Green Sphene is additionally colored by chromium/vanadium, which contributes nothing to its magnetic response. Yellow Apatite and brown Apatite are weakly to strongly magnetic due to neodymium and praseodymium. This rare earth metal pair is also found in blue, green, and even colorless Apatite. It may affect color in these gems to some degree, but it rarely causes magnetic attraction in these colors.
Cerium ions (Ce4+) occur in high concentrations as part of the native chemistry of brown Bastnasite and Parisite, but cerium is so weakly paramagnetic that it may contribute little or nothing to the strong magnetic responses of these rare gems. The high magnetic susceptibilities of Bastansite and Parisite, as well as the brown colors, may be due to high concentrations of strongly paramagnetic neodymium (Nd3+) and praseodymium (Pr3+).
Blue-Green GGG
Metals Within Microscopic Inclusions: Microscopic and sub-microscopic inclusions of colorful minerals occasionally act as pigments when they are abundant and distributed throughout a gemstone. The collective micro-magnetism of these extremely fine particles can also result in magnetic attraction in gems that are not magnetic when pure. Such inclusions are primarily found in Opal, Quartz and Feldspar, and more often than not these gems are translucent. We have already seen examples of magnetic Chrysoprase (Chalcedony Quartz) and Prase Opal, where magnetic nickel ions cause green color. In Chrysoprase, the nickel ions may occur within microscopic inclusions of Willemseite, a green nickel silicate mineral. Prase Opal is colored by microscopic inclusions of Chrysoprase.
A weakly magnetic green Opal with the trade name "Kiwi" Opal mined in Madagascar is likely colored by sub-microscopic inclusions of compounds containing iron and/or manganese. Macro-crystalline Quartz is occasionally colored by microscopic inclusions, as seen in "Sunset" Quartz. It is the needle-like inclusions of iron oxide (possibly Limonite) that impart orange color to "Sunset" Quartz, which is diamagnetic. In Feldspar, microscopic inclusions of magnetite in the gray body of spectral Labradorite (Feldspar) can induce magnetic attraction. In Oregon Sunstone (Labradorite Feldspar), microscopic particles of copper are the cause of red color and schiller, but the valence state (Cu1+) is not paramagnetic. The weak magnetic attraction shown by Oregon Sunstone is probably due to a small amount of cryptic iron.
Fire Opal (Brazil)
Chrysocolla Chalcedony
(Arizona)
Mineral Chrysocolla
(Peru)
Sub-microscopic inclusions of iron oxides such as Hematite or iron oxide-hydroxides such as Lepidocrocite and Goethite cause yellow, orange, and red colors in Agate and Chalcedony (such as Carnelian) and in Opal (such as Fire Opal). Solid suspensions of very fine particle inclusions produce lighter and brighter orange/red colors, while larger particles within a gem results in darker brownish orange/red colors. These iron-bearing inclusions or particles are diamagnetic (inert) in Carnelian as well as in Fire Opals from Mexico and Madagascar, probably due to low concentrations of iron. Fire Opals from Oregon and Brazil typically show weak magnetic responses, evidently due to higher iron content and/or iron oxide compounds with valence states different than those from Mexico and Madagascar.
"Kiwi "Opal
Colorless Sapphire
Yellow CZ
Williamsite
Yellow Smithsonite
Bumble Bee "Jasper" Cab
Near-colorless Demantoid Garnet is rare, but this natural idiochromatic gemstone will actually show a Pick-up magnetic response due to paramagnetic ions of iron. No other near-colorless gems of natural origin show such strong magnetism. Among man-made gems, GGG (Gadolinium Gallium Garnet) is the only completely colorless gemstone material that shows a Pick-up response due to the strong paramagnetism of gadolinium. Colorless synthetic HPHT Diamonds are the only transparent gemstones, natural or synthetic, that can show a Pick-up response due ferromagnetism (from elemental particles of iron and nickel).
In contrast to most colorless or white gems, black natural gemstones often contain abundant iron and/or manganese, and opaque black gems commonly show very strong magnetic attraction.
1) Iron (Fe) is one of the most common elements in the earth's crust, and it is the most common transition metal found in gemstones. As a solid metal, iron is in a non-ionic ground state, and it is ferromagnetic (intensely magnetic). Atoms of iron (ferrous Fe2+ ions or ferric Fe3+ ions) within oxides that are dispersed throughout a gem often cause color. These iron ions are not ferromagnetic, but they are strongly paramagnetic. Fe2+ ions are more paramagnetic than Fe3+ ions. We estimate that an N52 magnet can detect iron in gems in concentrations as low as 0.1% iron oxide (FeO) by weight.
Aluminum (Al) is not one of the transition metals, but it should be mentioned, as it is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, surpassing iron. Not surprisingly, aluminum is frequently found as part of the chemical formulas of natural gemstones. Aluminum oxide gems include Sapphire, Ruby, Spinel, Feldspar, and others. Aluminum silicate gems include Emerald, Garnet, Jade, Spodumene and others. Aluminum is also used in the production of many synthetic gems such as Yttrium Aluminum Garnet. Although aluminum is weakly paramagnetic in its pure metal state, aluminum ions (Al3+) in gems have no unpaired electrons and are therefore diamagnetic. Like titanium, aluminum does not by itself cause color.
Pyrope Garnet, Aluminum
Silicate Colored by Chromium & Iron
Green Synthetic YAG, Aluminum
Oxide Colored by Chromium
Smoky Quartz
When we see natural gems responding strongly to a neodymium magnet, we are most often detecting iron ions, or occasionally manganese ions. Dispersed iron ions within oxides create red color in gems such as Almandine Garnet, blue color as seen Aquamarine Beryl, and green color as seen in Peridot.
In the particular case of Quartz, aluminum occurs as an impurity that is involved in color centers. In an environment of radiation (natural or lab-created radiation), color centers are produced, resulting in brown color in Smoky Quartz and yellow color in natural Citrine. The yellow color of Citrine may also partly come from a charge transfer process involving iron (Fe3+). Smoky Quartz and Citrines that derive their color from these color processes are diamagnetic (not attracted to a magnet).
However, most Citrines on the market today are made by heating purple Amethyst, which derives color from color centers and charge transfer processes that involve iron (Fe4+) rather than aluminum (Al3+). Heat changes the valence state of iron from Fe4+ to Fe3+, thereby changing the color from purple (Amethyst) to yellow (Citrine). These treated Citrines, and the Amethysts from which they are derived, are also diamagnetic.
Citrine (untreated)
Non-metallic elements can also color gems. We find this in Bumble Bee “Jasper” (pictured below), which is actually not Jasper Quartz, but an aggregate rock containing volcanic minerals such as Sulfur and Hematite. Bumble Bee “Jasper” gets its bright orange and yellow colors from inclusions of sulfur (a non-metal) and yellow Orpiment (a mineral composed of arsenic and sulfur), both of which are diamagnetic. Cabochons of this material can be strongly magnetic due to iron within black swirls of Hematite.
Lapis Lazuli is another gemstone aggregate. It is composed of diamagnetic minerals such as Pyrite (a weakly magnetic iron sulfide) and blue Lazurite, as well as impurities of sulfur within the Lazurite. The rich blue color of Lapis Lazuli is due to charge transfer involving sulfur ions. Lapis Lazuli is diamagnetic.
Pink opal is colored by microscopic inclusions of plant-derived organic compounds called quinones. Quinones are also used in dyes, and these compounds are diamagnetic, as is pink Opal.
Lapis Lazuli
Oregon Sunstone (Feldspar)
Blue Amazonite
Pink Opal
Copper ions within sub-microscopic inclusions of the mineral Chrysocolla create blue and green colors in Opal, as seen in Peruvian Opal, and in Chalcedony Quartz, as we find in Chrysocolla Chalcedony ( a.k.a. Gem Silica) from Arizona and some other locations. The Chrysocolla inclusions in Gem Silica often result in significant magnetic attraction, but light blue translucent gems like the one shown below (center) are inert (diamagnetic) due to lower concentrations of Chrysocolla. Chrome Chalcedony derives its green color from microscopic inclusions containing chromium oxides. Chrome Chalcedony is inert to weakly magnetic.
Fire Opals (Mexico)
Chrome Chalcedony
(Mexico)
"Sunset" Quartz
Carnelian Chalcedony
Brown Apatite
Solid Manganese
Solid Chromium
Unpaired electrons: The degree of magnetic attraction shown by gemstones is generally related to the number of unpaired electrons within the metal ions that create gem color. Rare-earth metals such as gadolinium can be highly magnetic. Gadolinium ions (Gd3+) have more unpaired electrons than any other ion: 7 unpaired electrons that are inclined to align with the magnetic field of a magnet. In synthetic Gadolinium Gallium Garnets (GGG), these ions create the highest magnetic susceptibility of any transparent gem, although Gadolinium ions do not create color. Iron ions (Fe3+) and manganese ions (Mn2+) both have 5 unpaired electrons. As we have seen, these ions create color and are responsible for the strongest magnetic responses found in natural transparent gemstones such as Andradite Garnet and Spessartine Garnet.
In contrast, chromium ions (Cr3+) have only 3 unpaired electrons, and vanadium ions (V3+) have only 2 unpaired electrons. Chromium and vanadium ions are responsible for green color in gems such as Chrome Tourmaline, Emerald and Tsavorite Garnet. Because these ions have relatively low magnetic susceptibility and are found in low concentrations, they generally contribute little if anything to the magnetic attraction of the gems they color. Having only one unpaired electron, copper ions (Cu2+) in transparent gems such as Paraiba Tourmalines are magnetically undetectable. Titanium ions (Ti4+) are involved in color in many gems, but only through inter-valence charge transfer with other metal ions. Ti4+ ions by themselves cannot cause color, and because they have no unpaired electrons, titanium ions also cannot cause magnetic attraction.
Spessartine Garnet
Colored by
Manganese (Mn2+) & Iron (Fe2+)
Tsavorite Garnet
Colored by Chromium (Cr3+)
& Vanadium (V3+)
GGG
Colorless (Gd3+)
Picks Up with a Magnet
A rare example of solid metal copper inclusions occurring simultaneously with dispersed copper ions within a single gem is shown below. This Chalcedony gem from Bolivia contains relatively large visible inclusions of native copper that reach the surface and have a coppery metallic sheen. The blue body color of the gem is derived from copper ions (Cu2+) in solid solution, probably within microscopic inclusions of Chrysocolla dispersed throughout the Chalcedony. The black inclusions are unidentified. This allochromatic gem is diamagnetic.
Native Copper and Ionic Copper
in Chalcedony
Near-colorless Hessonite Garnet
with Orange Tint
Cryptic Ions: Iron and manganese ions can be “cryptic”. We use the term "cryptic" to describe dispersed metal ions within a gem that are not visible as color even though they are detectable with a magnet (or with a spectrometer, or even with UV fluorescence). Manganese ions in the valence state of Mn2+, and iron ions as Fe3+, are weak chromophores compared to most other transition metal ions. In some gems, these Mn2+ and Fe3+ ions may not produce any visible color except when in high concentrations. Most or all of the color in a gem containing relatively low concentrations of Fe3+ and Mn2+ may be due to other metal ions within the gem, and/or to charge transfer processes involving Mn2+ or Fe3+.
It follows that natural gems that are magnetic and colored primarily by chromium must additionally contain naturally-occurring impurities of iron or manganese ions that are cryptic: i.e. the concentration of iron or manganese is sufficient to cause magnetic attraction, but the iron or manganese may contribute nothing to color. However, cryptic iron may modify the tone of a gem toward a darker shade.
Cryptic iron ions may be responsible for most or all of the magnetic attraction seen in green gems colored primarily by chromium such as Chrome Diopside, Chrome Demantoid Garnet and some Emeralds (inert to moderately magnetic). Chrome Chalcedony (colored green by trace amounts of chromium oxide) typically contains no detectable iron and is usually inert (diamagnetic). But Chrome Diopside is weakly to strongly magnetic. Why the difference? Chrome Diopside contains a magnetically detectable amount of iron.
Uvarovite Garnet Druse (Russia)
Man-made gems such as synthetic Emerald, synthetic Ruby, and synthetic red Spinel are some of the few transparent faceted gems that contain enough chromium to be definitively detectable with a magnet (an estimated minimum of 0.4% chromium oxide by weight). Most of these gems are weakly magnetic, at the lower limit of detectability, but some synthetic Emeralds and high-chromium natural Emeralds can be strongly magnetic due to chromium.
Among natural gem minerals colored by chromium, Emeralds, Rubies and some red Spinels with strong color saturation may contain enough chromium (> 0.4%) to partly contribute to the weak or moderate magnetic responses caused by a combination of iron and chromium. Chromium content within some Garnets, especially Chrome Pyrope, may also contribute in a small way to total magnetic susceptibility. Green Chrome Chalcedony and occasionally Chrome Tourmaline can show faint magnetic attraction that may due entirely to chromium and vanadium.
Small green crystals of idiochromatic Uvarovite Garnet (an opaque Chromium Garnet) can contain 10-100 times more chromium than Emerald. Uvarovite Garnet crystals and crystals of Chromium-dravite Tourmaline are the only natural gem crystals known to have high magnetic susceptibility due to chromium. Druse crystals of Uvarovite show a Pick-up response to an N52 magnet, and Uvarovite crystals over 1ct. show a Drag response.
Chrome Chalcedony
Other Coloring Agents: Yellow Smithsonite is colored by the transition metal cadmium, which is diamagnetic. Yellow Smithsonite gems can show weak magnetic attraction, likely due to the presence of iron impurities. In Amazonite Feldspar, ions of lead are involved in the formation of color centers that give rise to green and blue color. Lead is a diamagnetic metal, but metal ions of any type involved in color centers are never in concentrations high enough to be detectabiliyy magnetic.
Uranium (U4+) is a radioactive metal present in low (non-harmful) concentrations in natural Zircons of all colors. When certain colorless Zircons contain enough uranium dioxide (UO2), they turn blue when heated at high temperatures. The highest concentrations of uranium are found in green Zircons, with uranium being responsible for the green color. These Zircons are metamict, meaning they have had their crystal structure degraded over time by uranium. Zircons of other colors owe their colors primarily to color centers rather than directly to uranium. Although uranium is a significantly paramagnetic metal, uranium ions in Zircon are rarely detectable with a magnet because of their low concentrations. On rare occasion, the concentration of uranium dioxide can be high enough (>0.3%) in green metamict Zircon to create weak magnetic attraction (see photo below right).
Heated Blue Zircon (Inert)
Green Metamict Zircon (Weak, rare)
Trace amounts of uranium dioxide are also known to be responsible for green fluorescence in some Opals such as opaque white Common Opal from Virgin Valley, Nevada (which fluoresces green in ultraviolet light), and transparent globular Hayalite Opal from Zacatecas, Mexico (which fluoresces pale green in daylight and bright green in ultraviolet light). Traces of uranium may also be the cause green phosphorescence in Australian Opals. Uranium has also been used to manufacture fluorescent green Glass gems and decorative green "Uranium Glass" objects. The Uranium Opal mineral specimens shown below are diamagnetic.
Common Opal Rough, Virgin Valley, Nevada
Ultraviolet Light Fluorescence
Hayalite Opal Specimen, Zacateca, Mexico
Daylight Fluorescence
Pink Spinel, Aluminum
Oxide Colored by Chromium
8) Titanium (Ti) by itself does not cause color or magnetic attraction in natural gemstones. As a solid metal, titanium is weakly magnetic. Titanium ions (Ti4+) in gems are only barely paramagnetic, and not detectable with a magnet. It is the interaction between small amounts of titanium ions and iron ions that creates strong color in a number of gems through a process called intervalence charge transfer. This chemical process involving electron charge transfers from Fe2+ to Ti4+, as well as from Fe2+ to Fe3+, results in the rich blue hues of Sapphire (inert to moderately magnetic) and blue Kyanite (inert). The process of Fe2+ to Ti4+ charge transfer also induces dark brown color in Dravite Tourmaline (inert). Manganese (Mn2+) to titanium (Ti4+) charge transfer contributes to yellow color in some Tourmalines (inert to drag response). Any magnetic attraction in gems containing titanium is due to the presence of iron and/or manganese, not to titanium or to charge transfer processes involving titanium.
Amethyst
Copper ions (Cu2+) within oxides also impart blue color to a few allochromatic gems such as transparent Paraiba Tourmaline and rare blue Vesuvianite. But low concentrations and weak magnetic susceptibility make copper in allochromatic gems undetectable with a neodymium magnet. Copper ions (Cu2+) are also responsible for the light blue color of opaque Larimar, the popular cabochon gem variety of Pectolite, which is also allochromatic. Ions are in concentrations too low to be detected. The Larimar cab shown below is inert (diamagnetic).
Dioptase
Paraiba Tourmaline
Iron ions involved in charge transfer processes are responsible for blue color as seen in Iolite, green color as seen in green "Verdelite" Tourmaline, and brown color as seen in Dravite Tourmaline. Iron also induces yellow and black colors in other gems.
Aquamarine
Verdelite Tourmaline
Dravite Tourmaline
4) Vanadium (V) is usually paired with chromium in allochromatic green gems. It has the same magnetic susceptibility as chromium, can create the same green colors as chromium, and often is the primary component of the pair. Color ranges from dark green to light green depending on concentration.
Vanadium can be the primary cause of color in many green gems such as Emerald and Tsavorite Garnet. A number of green gems that have the word "chrome" in the trade name are actually colored primarily by vanadium. Examples include Chrome Sphene, Chrome Tourmaline and Chrome Kornerupine. Our own comparisons of UV fluorescence, Chelsea filter reactions and absorption spectra indicate that vanadium (V3+) rather than chromium (Cr3+) is the dominant coloring agent in these gems. Like chromium, vanadium is not magnetically detectable in concentrations less than approximately 0.4% vanadium oxide.
"Chrome" Tourmaline
Colored Primarily by Vanadium
"Chrome" Kornerupine
Colored Primarily by Vanadium
Cobalt is sometimes used in gem treatments to enhance blue color. Cobalt glass is now being used to fill cracks in low-grade colorless and blue Sapphire, creating vibrant blue color in gems that would otherwise not be of gem quality. Cobalt is also used in surface diffusion of blue Sapphire, and recently in deep diffusion of blue Spinel. It is unlikely that any of these treatments contribute to detectable magnetic susceptibility.
Chromium is sometimes found as a secondary coloring agent in gems that are colored primarily by a different metal. This chromium may also be present without contributing to color at all. As an example, blue Sapphire often contains a trace of chromium which is not detectable as color or magnetism, but which does cause red or pink fluorescence under long wave UV light.
Synthetic Emerald
Colored Primarily by Vanadium
As with chromium, vanadium ions are usually found in low concentrations in natural gemstones, and gems colored primarily by vanadium are usually diamagnetic (inert). When magnetic attraction is encountered, most or all of the attraction may be due to the presence of cryptic iron (Fe3+). The only natural gemstone we have encountered that is strongly magnetic due to vanadium is a rare example of transparent Vanadium-dravite Tourmaline.
Among man-made gems, lab emeralds such as the synthetic vanadium Emerald pictured above (right) can show faint magnetic attraction due to a modest level of vanadium. We have also measured strong magnetic susceptibility in Cubic Zirconia colored by a high concentration of vanadium.
The green colors associated with vanadium are sometimes slightly bluish in hue, resulting in interesting green colors, as seen in "mint" green Merelani Grossular Garnet, blue-green vanadium Chrysoberyl and blue-green synthetic Emerald. But chromium can also create similar blue-green color in gemstones.
Vanadium can also cause blue color in a few gems such as Cavansite, Tanzanite (Zoisite) and blue Kornerupine. Trace amounts of trivalent vanadium (V3+) in Corundum has also been shown to contribute blue color. Tetravalent vanadium (V4+) is known to be responsible for the blue color in Cavansite, but the valence states and/or color mechanisms involving vanadium in blue Zoisite and blue Kornerupine are not well understood. Tanzanite is diamagnetic. The weak magnetic responses found in blue Kornerupine and the moderate magnetic responses in Canvansite are almost certainly due to metals other than vanadium.
Blue Kornerupine
Tanzanite
In other rare instances, chromium is present in blue gemstones. The blue-green color of Aquaprase Chalcedony (diamagnetic) is due to chromium in combination with nickel, and the blue-green color of Chrome Kyanite (diamagnetic to weakly magnetic) is due to chromium in combination with iron and titanium. Both gems appear red under a Chelsea filter due to chromium.
Aquaprase Chalcedony (Africa)
Chrome Kyanite (India)
Tsavorite Grossular Garnet
Clored Primarily by Vanadium
Vanadium Chrysoberyl
Colored Primarily by Vanadium
Colorless Enstatite